We arrive, then, at a definition of the syllable as a minimal pulse of initiatory activity bounded by a momentary retardation of the initiator, either self-imposed, or, more...

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Smutek to uczucie, jak gdyby się tonęło, jak gdyby grzebano cię w ziemi.

Every syllable has a central part, or nucleus: this is most commonly a vowel, as in English cat, stop, slept, and so on, but occasionally it is a sound that we would usually regard as a consonant, such as the [r] that forms the nucleus of Czech [krk] 'neck', or the syllabic [n] that forms the nucleus of the final syllable of English sudden [sAdn]. Since the syllable-nucleus is normally a vowel we shall represent it here as V. A syllable may consist of nothing but the nucleus, as, for instance, the English words awe, ah, the name of the letter E, and so on, w hich we can represent as simply V. On the other hand, there may be a consonantal beginning or end to the syllable, which w;e can represent as C. We can thus indicate various kinds of syllable structures that occur in English as: V, e.g. awe ah; CV saw go; VC eat up: CVC cat mad, etc. If there is more than one consonant at the beginning or end of
181
Prosodic Features
180
Prosodic Features
a syllable, we can show this by simply adding as many Cs as may be necessary, thus: CCV play slay, VCC apt end, CCVC stop brought. CCVCC slopped [stnpt] plant, CCCV stray screw, CCCVCC strand, and so on. Languages differ greatly as to the types of syllable structure that they permit, and we will refer to this again when we discuss the sound-systems of languages.
We have now seen that, in the course of speaking, the activity of the initiator-most commonly, indeed nearly always, the pulmonic initiator-is parcelled out, as it were, into short chunks, or small peaks of initiator power separated from each other by slight retardations of the initiator. These chunks are syllables, and the momentary retardations that mark the boundaries between syllables are most commonly imposed by consonants, but they can also be self-imposed. Moreover, each syllable may be produced with greater or lesser initiator power, or stress as it is called, than its neighbours. The word phonetics, for instance, clearly has three syllables-is delivered in three chunks of initiatory activity, each bounded by consonants, thus: CVCVCVCC. Moreover, it is clear that the second syllable is delivered with greater initiator power than the others, and consequently we describe it as stressed, and so we can represent the syllabic structure of that word as CVCVCVCC where 'CV marks the stressed syllable, and finally, we can transcribe it as [fa'netiks].
There is one further matter to discuss concerning prosodic features associated with initiation. This is the question of what is often called the rhythm of speech. This is partly a matter of the alternation or distribution of short and long syllables, but it is also a matter of the timing of the initiator pulses.
3. THE FOOT
In many languages, of which English is a good example, in addition to syllables, such as we have discussed, initiatory activity seems to be parcelled out into relatively equal chunks that are often longer than the length of a syllable.
Here are three English sentences with a stress-mark ['] inserted before each stressed syllable:
1. 'That's what 'John bought 'yesterday 'morning.
2. 'That's the 'book John bought 'yesterday 'morning.
3. 'That's the 'model John bought 'yesterday 'morning.
We tend to deliver each of these sentences in four bursts of initiator activity. Each burst, or 'chunk1, has the initiator power rising to a peak in the syllable that is marked as stressed, then the power falls off to a low value, then rises again to a peak at the next stressed syllable, and so on.
morning, morning, mornine.
yesterday yesterday yesterday
That's what That's the That's the
Representing the rise and falls of initiator power by a rising-falling line, and the division into chunks by vertical lines, we can represent the initiatory pattern of these sentences as in Fig. 49.
John bought hook John bought model John bought
FIG. 49. Stress-groups, or feet