This is why it is unwise to talk of stress (as some people have done) in terms of degrees of loudness, since loudness is in part a product of the inherent sonority of sounds...

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Smutek to uczucie, jak gdyby się tonęło, jak gdyby grzebano cię w ziemi.
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Smutek to uczucie, jak gdyby się tonęło, jak gdyby grzebano cię w ziemi.

It is much more reliable to think of stress entirely in terms of degrees of initiator power-the amount of energy expended in pumping air out of the lungs.
Incidentally, we often talk as if there were two clearly distinct degrees of stress-called 'stressed' and 'unstressed'. This, of course, is not the case. Initiator power is infinitely variable, from zero (when the initiator is inactive and, consequently, there is no airflow and no sound) to an indefinite maximum (depending on the size and muscular strength of the speaker) when the initiator is operating at full power, forcing the air out at the highest possible velocity against the resistance imposed upon the airflow by phonatory and articulatory strictures. However, many languages make meaningful, linguistic, use of only two distinct degrees of stress, namely a relatively strong stress, characterizing what are called 'stressed' syllables, and a relatively weaker stress, characterizing what are called 'unstressed' syllables. This is one reason why-it is often useful to talk as if there were a clear-cut distinction between stressed and unstressed sounds.
So far we have experimented chiefly with voiceless sounds. There is a good reason for this, namely, that with voiceless sounds it is particularly easy to get the feeling of stress-that is, to become aware of the kinaesthetic sensations associated with the production of different degrees of stress. There is also another reason that we will refer to again in a moment.
Having acquired a basic feeling for stress as initiator power, we must now experiment with producing voiced sounds with varying degrees of stress.
116 Say a prolonged [z z z z z z z] and then impose different stress-patterns upon it, just as you did with |s s s s s] in Exp. 1 15, thus: ['z z 'z z 'z z] etc. You may find it easier to separate the successive [z]-segments by a glottal stop, thus: ['z? z' 'z' z'] etc. but you need not do this. Continue with varying patterns, such as: [z 'z z 'z z 'z], [z 'z z z 'z zz], |'v v'v'vv].etc.
Next, experiment with vowels, preferably separated by consonants, in such sequences as ['la la 'la la 'la la], |la la 'la la la 'la], [ba 'ba ba ba 'baj, (li 'li li 'li], ['hi bi 'bi bi bi 'hi] etc.
It is a little more difficult to be aware of the feeling of stress-variations with voiced sounds, and you may find it helpful to try whispering the examples of Experiment 116 as well as voicing them.
As I hinted above, there is another reason why it is simplest to
176
Prosodic Features
Prosodic Features
111
begin the study of stress with voiceless fricatives. This is the fact that with voiced sounds, particularly vowels, attention may be distracted from stress by the presence of concomitant differences of pitch, and in real-language examples-for example, in English-there are often differences in duration as well. These concomitants of stress sometimes confuse people, since they tend to conceal the true nature of stress, as simply initiator power.
If you experiment briefly with stressed and unstressed voiced syllables, such as ['la la 'la la], [la 'la la 'la], ['da da da], [da 'da da], etc., you will probably find that you pronounce the stressed syllables-particularly if you stress them strongly-on a higher pitch than the unstressed syllables, and you may also make them longer.
There is a natural, physical, connection between stress and pitch, as we shall see below. Consequently stressed syllables are often pronounced on a different pitch from neighbouring unstressed syllables. If you say the English words 'abstract (noun), abstract (verb), or 'pervert (noun), pervert (verb), you will notice that in the nouns the first syllable is stressed, whereas in the verbs the second syllable is stressed. But at the same time, as you say these words in isolation, you will probably notice a difference in the pitch-scheme of each word-pair. In the nouns, the first syllable starts on a fairly high pitch: the pitch falls and the second syllable is quite low-pitched. In the verbs, however, the first syllable is probably said on a mid-pitch, while the second syllable has a falling pitch, possibly starting a little higher than the first syllable. Using a rather obvious kind of pitch notation, we can represent these pitch-schemes as shown in Fig. 47.
If you whisper the words, the difference of pitch is abolished and you can then become more clearly aware of the stress difference. You will also notice, incidentally, that the unstressed
noun
'abstract ab'stract
'pervert per'vcrt